Challenges and Opportunities in State-Building In the Kurdistan Region- Iraq (2005-2024)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21271/zjlp.23.40.12Keywords:
بنایتنانی دەوڵەت، هەرێمی کوردستان، دەرفەتەکان، ئاڵنگاری ناوەخۆیی، وئاڵنگاری نێودەوڵەتیی.Abstract
The Kurds in Iraq have a long history of struggle to establish their state. The Kurds' history underwent a significant transformation with the advent of the turning point in 1991 and the subsequent constitutional recognition of the Kurdistan region. Through an in-depth examination of these significant shifts. The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the state-building process in the region, the significant of the study lies in its emphasis on the challenges and opportunities that the Kurdistan region faced during 2005–2024. Based on a qualitative approach, these challenges and opportunities provide a vital framework for understanding the state-building process during that time. The study aims to identify several challenges, including geopolitical issues and internal challenges particularly the political rivalries that originated during the civil war—continue to influence a fragmented administrative structure, which has resulted in weakened institutional unification, increased corruption, poor governance, and ongoing political fragmentation. This study identifies additional challenges, including regional and international issues. In addition to these challenges, the study highlights key opportunities, including conditions of statehood and rich natural resources like oil and gas. Also, the progress of democracy after the establishment of the KRG and the building of institutions provides another significant opportunity for this process. In addition to international support for the region, the study focuses on conflicts and tensions, such as wars and power struggles, which generally shift at both regional and global levels. The findings suggest that the success of the region's state-building process depends on the capacity of its institutions, entities, and political parties; on how well they can manage those challenges; and on how well they can seize those opportunities and adapt to global changes.
References
Nuri,M.(2022)Political History of the de Facto Kurdistan region,Iraq.nternational Journal of Kurdiname,No.6,122–143.
Ababakr, Y.(2020)Iraqi Kurdistan Region:from paradiplomacy to protodiplomacy.In Review of Economics and Political Science,Vol8,309–328.
Palani,K.,&Fazil, S.(2023)Fluid State-Building in the Kurdistan region of Iraq:Taking advantage of the 2003 U.S.-Led invasion.International Peacekeeping, 30(5),642–667.
Stansfield,G.(2014)Kurdistan Rising:To Acknowledge or Ignore the Unraveling of Iraq,Middle East Memo 33,no.33,1–16.
Mills,R.(2016)Under the mountains:Kurdish Oil and Regional Politics.Ithe Oxford Institute for EnergyStudies.
Reuters(2025)US energy firms’ deals with Iraqi Kurdistan are “null and void,” Baghdad says.
Frappi,C.(n.d.)The Energy Factor:Oil and State Building in Iraqi Kurdistan.
Qadir,H.(2021)The impact of energy on the relationship between Turkey and the Kurdistan region. Ayindanasy Journal,center of future research, Sulaymaniyah.
Muhammad,A.(2015)The impact of oil and gas on the position of the Kurdistan region-Iraq after 2003.MAthesis,College of law and politics,Salaheddin University.
Kurda,A.(2020)Kurds and the State.Research Center of Historical Jamil Rojbayani,Tehran Press.
Pichon,E.(2017)IraqiKurdistan’sindependence referendum. European Parliamentary Research Service,2–8.
KurdistanTV(2017)Salaheddin Bahaden:There is no excuse for neglecting the referendum.
KurdistanTV(2020)Muhamad Haji Mahmoud published a massage on the anniversary of the independence referendum decision.
RudawMedia(2025)Nechirvan Barzani answers the significant question.
Gunes,C.&Finotello(2019)Kurds in a NewMiddleEast. Springer International Publishing.
Asaf, H.(2025)The Kurdistan region is a decisive legitimate entity,but it cannot represent all Kurds.
Kurdistan24 (2016) Barzani releases statement on independence referendum.
Hadji,P.(2015)The case for Kurdishstatehood in Iraq.In Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law,41(2).
Gurski,P.(2021)June 1,2004:Kurdish political party targeted in Iraq bombing.Borealis Threat&Risk Consulting
Packard,M.(n.d.)Earning Independence in Iraqi Kurdistan.
Sardashty,Y.(2014)The development of Kurdish national identity and the possibilities of establishing an independent Kurdish state.The Jamal Irfan Cultural Institute.Sulaymaniyah
Sommer,F.(2021)Geopolitics of Iraqi Kurdistan:A role of external and internal actors in the Kurdish issue,thesis,Charles University.
Heshmati,A.&Auzer,Kh.(2018)The Role of Natural Resources in KurdistanRegionalGovernment’s Economic Development,University of Kurdistan, Hawler.
Wahab,B.(2023)Tipping Point of the Iraq-KRG Energy Dispute.The Washington institute for near east policy.
Purr,A.&MubarakShahi,M.(2020)Barriers to the annexation of Kirkuk to the Kurdistan regional government.Ayindanasih No.3.
Roberts,M.(2020)Turkish and the Kurdistanregion of Iraq:strained relations,Natural Gas News.
Stansfield,G.(2003)Iraqi Kurdistan:political development and emergent democracy.Routledge.
Bradosti,G.(n.d.)Chapter 5:Why it is time for an independent Kurdistan.
SpeeMedia(2019)Is what existing in Kurdistan a democracy?-White Dialogue.
Kurdistanthinktank(2017)State and Nation.Rojhelat Publishing Press/Erbil.No.1
Kurdistan Parliament,2025.History of Parliament.
MacQueen,B.(2015)Democratization,elections and the ‘defacto state dilemma:Iraq’s KurdistanRegionalGovernment.Cooperation and Conflict,50(4),423–439.
Rudaw(2017)Kurdistan independence referendum.
Hamad,T.R.&Dong-Young,K.(2011)Elections and Democracy in the Kurdistanregion of Iraq,MAThesis,KDI School of Public Policy and Management.
VollerY.(2012)From rebellion to de facto statehood:International and transnational sources of the transformation of the Kurdish national liberation movement in Iraq into the Kurdistan regional
government.PhDthesis.London School of Economics,London.
Kurdistan24(2024)Kurdistanregion a model of democracy,the US ambassador stated.
Kurdistanregion parliament-Iraq(2015)The law of protecting the rights of components in the Kurdistan region-Iraq,Law No.5 of 2016.Erbil: Kurdistan region Parliament.
Faqe,A.(2014)Political and Constitutional Challenges to the Statehood of the KurdistanRegion.MA thesis,College of Law and Politics,Salahaddin University.
Hama,H.(2024)KDP and PUK:Outdated Political Party Model,Modern diplomacy.
Pring,c et al.(2015)Kurdistan Region of Iraq:Overview of corruption and anti-corruption.U4 Expert Answer.Anti-corruption resource center.
Aziz,S.&VanVeen,E.(2023)The crisis of representation in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.Clingendael Report,Netherlands Institute of International Relations.
Fukuyama(2023)It is necessary for Kurdistanto have its own state. file:///Users/a2021/Downloads/فۆکۆ%20یاما%20بۆ%20رووداو%20پێویستە%20لە%20کوردستان%20دەوڵەتی...%20رووداو.نێت.html.
Salam,D.(2024)The interrelationship between sovereignty,state building, and good governance:the case of the Kurdistan region.Democratization,Routledge.
AlOmari,Gh.&Wahab,B.(2022)KRG and PA:Reprioritizing Governance over Symbolism
Regional Challenges.The Washington Institute for Near Middle East policy.
Hama,H.H.&Mamshai,F.H.(2020)The Nature of Political Parties in the Kurdistan Region.Kurdistan conflict and crisis Research Center.Sarchnar-Sulaymaniyah.
Kakarash,S.(2020)The challenges of nation-building in the Kurdistan region of Iraq,Johns Hopkins University.
Palani, K.,et al.(2019)The development of Kurdistan’s de facto statehood:Kurdistan’s September 2017 referendum for independence.ThirdWorldQuarterly,40(12),2270–2288.
Sdiq,S.&Sharif,A.F.(2023)Political and social obstacles to the Nation-Building process in the Kurdistan region.Journal of Kurdistani for Strategic Studies,2.
Sadoon,H.B.(2021)The KurdishDeFacto State:Foreign policy transitions and trends.University of Duhok.
Abdullah,F.H.(2018)The political system in Iraq Kurdistan:Partyrivalries and future perspective
,'Asian Affairs,49(4),606–624.
Hama,H.&Ali,O.(2019)De-politicization of the partisan forces in the KurdistanRegion of Iraq.National Identities.
Hama,H.(2024)Kleptocratic Rule in Iraq Kurdistan.1001Iraqi Thoughts.
Ala’Aldeen D.(2016)State-building in a fragmented Kurdistan Region of Iraq.The Middle East Research Institute,Erbil,Kurdistan Region,Iraq,3(13).
Hetuti,N.(2024)Iran and the Kurdistan region:is it a friendly relationship or a proxy forces.Rudaw research center.
Saleem,Z.(2017)Iran and Iraqi Kurdistan: heading toward confrontation.Washington institute.
Itzchakov,D.(2017)Iran and the Kurdish Challenges.BESACenterPerspective.
Koç,E.(2021)Flactuating relations between Iran and the Iraqi KurdistanRegional Government since 1958.Iğdır Üniversitesi, 304–319.
Sanyourak,M.B.(2020)the politics of international and regional actors toward Kurdistan region
Translated byQadir,H.M.,ayindanasy.No.1.
Dağdeviren,Z.(2022)The energy relation between Tukey and Kurdistan region-Iraq.Translated by Abdullah R.,Ayindanasy.No.12.
Ustan,K.&Dudeen,L.(2017)Tukey-KRG mutual interest,geopolitical challenges.Analysis No.31.
Dalay,G.(2017)Evolution of Turkey-Iraqi Kurdistan’s relations.Aljazeera center for studies.
Uyanik,M.(2017)Turkey and the KRG After the Referendum:Blocking the Path to Independence.Center for strategic&international studies.
Najim,K.Z.(2022)The future of the international system and Kurdistan region.Ayindanasy,No.15.
Cowley,A.S.(2011)The Evolution of the international system:Surrender Sovereignty of Fight to the death. the school of advance air and space studies.AirUniversity.
WorldHealthOrganization(2022).WHO supports the Kurdistan Region with over 20 tons of medical supplies to enhance national response to COVID-19 health challenges,Erbil.
Kurdistan24(2020)Top international aid organizations build COVID‑19 isolation ward in Duhok,4 July.
Rudaw(2021)The United States sends COVID‑19 aid to the Kurdistan Region.13January.
Caspersen,N.(2012)Unrecognized States:The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Modern International System. Cambridge Polity Press.
Holland,J.&McCowan(2018)The Kurds After the ‘Caliphate:How the Decline of ISIS has Impacted the Kurds of Iraq and Syria.ICSR.London.
Nore,A.K.(2022)International politics and the right to self-determination:the case of Iraqi Kurdistan.Université Clermont Auvergne.
Hama,H.H.(2019)Theory of structure realism in international relations.Kurdistan conflict and crisis research center,Sulaymaniyah - Gerdy Sarchenar.
Ibrahim,I.(2015)Double Standard in International Politics. Journal of Palestine Studies, University of California Press on behalf of the Institute for Palestine Studies,17(1),168_170.
Kurdistan regionalgovernment(2017)President Macron emphasizes the requirement to ensure Kurdistan’s constitutional rights.
Ava News(2025)Kurds and France:a long-term relationship.
Muhamad,N.Z.(2022)POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE DE-FACTO KURDISTAN REGION-IRAQ,' International Journal of Kurdi name,122–143.
Ala’Aldeen,D.(2018)State-building:Aroadmap for the rule of law and institutionalization in the Kurdistan region.Middle East Research Institute (MERI).
Seyder,F.I.(2017)The Iraqi Kurds:Historical Backgrounds of a Nonstate Nation,pp. 25–4.Palgrave Macmillan,New York.
Sadeq,J.B.(2024)Nations Referendum for Independence;Catalonia and Kurdistan Region.,[lecture]. University of Soran,April 27.
Fukuyama,F.(2004)State-building:governance and world order in the 21st century.Cornell University Press.
Rasul,Z.(2020)AnotherRoundofConflictsbetweenthe PDK and PUK.Rudaw.
Rudaw(2025)A CIA Report reveals large Mount of Copper Raw Material in The Mountains of Qaladze
KurdistanRegionalGovernment(2024)The preliminary Results of the General Population Census of Kurdistan Region have been Published.
Rudaw(2025)Beshkchi:the Kurdistan region is a legitimate position, but it cannot represent all Kurds
Iraq 2005 Constitution - Constitute.(n.d.).
European Union Agency for Asylum(n.d.)Kurdistan Regional Government.
Khider,Z.M.(2015)The impact of oil factor on Kurdistan future of Kurdistan region of Iraq.MA thesis. College of Law and Politics,Salahaddin University.
Faraj,A.M.& Khorsheed.CH. M.(2022)The impact of oil and gas factors on the position of the Kurdistan region-Iraq,Journal of university of Human Development.pp15_27.
Abdullah,T.W.(2024)the policy of Iran toward Kurdistan region(strategy-hegemony)Irannasiy,No.11, Sulaymaniah
Hadji,P.(2015)The case for Kurdish statehood in Iraq.Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law
Sissakian,V.(2018)The mineral wealth in the Kurdistan region, Iraq.UKH,23–36.
Sloot,P.(2023)How the American invasion of 2003 affected Kurdish statebuilding in Iraq,MAthesis, Nijmegen School of Management, Radboud Universiteit,The Netherlands.
Fukuyama,F.(2004)State-Building,Governance and World Order in The 21st Century,Ithaca,New York:Cornell University Press.
Tilly,C.(1975)The Formation of National States.New Jersey:Princeton University Press.
Tilly,C.(1990)Coercion,Capital,and European States,AD 990-1990,Oxford:Blackwell
Huntington,S.(2006)Political order in changing society,2ndedn.New Haven and London,Yale University Press.
YoungL.(2022)TestingTilly:Does War Really Make States?Social Evolution&History,1(1),175-199.
